The Importance of A Project Management Office Essay Example for Free

The Importance of A Project Management Office Essay Project management can be a tedious job especially if the personnel or department in charge is already loaded with tons of work. It may be hard to cope up with the schedule, time pressure, workload, and other factors. In line with this, the task of handling such tasks must be assigned to a specialized department known as Project Management Office. What is a Project Management Office? A Project Management Office is a unit or department functioning within a business, company, or agency that is charged with defining and maintaining project management standards within the company. The main objective of this office is to achieve beneficial gains from setting uniform policies, processes, and methods in managing projects(Search CIO. com, n. d). The Project Management Office will provide direction, metrics connected with practices concerning project management and implementation. The principles, methods, and practices of managing a project are based from Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) or Project in Controlled Environment (PRINCE2). These models complies with the specifications related to ISO9000 as well as in government regulation specifications(Search CIO. om, n. d). Essentially, the job of the Project Management Office is to perform related to a certain project and to work for the completion of the project. The PMO may from time to time update management regarding the status and problems of the project so that they can come up with decisions which are congruent to the goals and objectives of the firm(Search CIO. com, n. d). The Kinds of Project Management Office There are three varieties of project management offices that are suitable for organizations in various phases of developing a project. Each of them have their own pros and cons. Here is a brief explanation of the different kinds of project management offices(Billows, 2006). The Weather Station With this kind of PMO, the person-in-charge of the project is aware of what is going on with the project but does not make any action to influence it. The project officer just disseminates information without bothering the flow of work(Billows, 2006). This kind of office is most suitable in organizations that have just started in project management. The job of this kind of office is usually limited because the various line managers usually experience difficulties in incorporating various projects into their management duties(Billows, 2006). The Control Tower In contrast to the first variety, this kind of PMO provides the guidance that the project managers might need. Although they are still doing their tasks, the project managers are being instructed by the project officer. They are liable for any glitch that will happen to the project(Billows, 2006). The Squadron Commander Just like in the Control Tower, the Squadron Commander provides guidance to the project managers. However, the SC closely supervises all the people handling the project. There might be instances of successes and shortcomings but the Squadron Commander is held resposible for the general performance of the department(Billows, 2006). The disadvantage of this kind of office is that the personnel who have the technical know how as well as the most credible managers are doing multiple tasks aside from their main job. Aside from that, the job of allocating resources and prioritizing projects can go out of hand. Another problem that Squadron Commanders is that management may be hesitant in injecting company-wide standards related to project tracking and approval(Billows, 2006). History of Project Management Office The concept of modern project management can be traced to only a few decades back. During the 1960s, businesses and other firms discovered the advantages of organizing project tasks. Most companies developed an understanding on how crucial it is for their staff to establish communication and collaboration while incorporating their jobs with several departments and professions, and in certain instances, with several industries(Microsoft Office Online, n. d). The Early Years During the later years of the 19th century, at a time when businesses were becoming complicated, the corporate world began to see the evolution of project handling from simple management principles. Wide-scale government initiatives became the foundation for project management processes and principles. During the time that the United States was constructing the transcontinental railroad during the 1860s, business leaders were faced with the tough task of coordinating with workers who will engage in manual labor as well as in producing and processing of a large number of raw materials(Microsoft Office Online, n. d). Into The Twentieth Century Frederick Taylor started to made further studies of work. Using scientific reasoning, he proved that labor can be evaluated and enhanced by concentrating on its basic elements. Taylor applied this view in various jobs found in steel mills, such as shoveling and lifting and transporting parts. At that time, the only method of increasing productivity is through hard work and extended working hours. Taylor believed that productivity can be improved through efficient work instead of exerting more effort and work extension(Microsoft Office Online, n. d). Henry Gantt, an associate of Taylor, extensively studied the sequence of operations in work. His research delved on navy ship manufacturing during World War I. He developed the Gantt Charts, which comes with task bars and milestone markers, as a tool for outlining the order and extent of all tasks in a prcess. These illustrations proved to be a powerful aid for managers that there were no modifications for almost a century. In the early part of the 1990s, Microsoft Corporation introduced MS Project which included connector lines to the tasks bars, showing a more accurate relationship between the differen tasks. Over the years, Microsoft Office became an even more powerful tool(Microsoft Office Online, n. ). His contribution merited Gantt with a patent from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. In the years leading to the Second World War, new approaches to marketing, human relations, and industrial psychology, became vital components of project management(Microsoft Office Online, n. d). Middle 20th Century The Second World War necessitated the need for new organizational patterns. Complicated network illustrations, like PERT charts and critical path method were developed, providing managers with greater control over complicated projects. As the demand for new management techniqes increased, these tools extended to various industries. General system theories were applied by businesses in their business dealings during the early part of the 1960s(Microsoft Office Online, n. d). New Trends In Project Management In the last decade, project management continued to develop. At present, there are two trends evolving namely bottom-up planning and top-down planning and reviewing(Microsoft Office Online, n. d). Bottom-up planning, also called agile project management, involves basic project designs, shorter project chain, efficient cooperation between members of the team, solid involvement of team members in the decision process. Common methos used in this trend are Scrum, Unified Process, Extreme Programming, Crystal, to name just a few(Microsoft Office Online, n. d). In top-down planning and reviewing, the entire organization is involved in making decisions concerning the various projects of the organization(Microsoft Office Online, n. d).

Facilitating Obstetric Services for Pregnant Women

Facilitating Obstetric Services for Pregnant Women Socio-cultural INFULENCES AND Access TO Basic Obstetric Care (BOC) Abstract Although pregnancy and childbirth are not of medical origin, respectively, they signify normal physiological events. Women who are pregnant often anticipate satisfactory childbirth outcomes, with no complications during the birthing process. Maternal and Child health is achieved through comprehensive obstetric interventions. While basic obstetric care is available for pregnant women, socio-cultural beliefs are effective as well to convince them not to access appropriate care during obstetric emergencies. Therefore, this essay explains why pregnant women are often unable to receive care they need and the benefits of accessing essential obstetric care in health facilities. Socio-cultural Beliefs and Childbirth Practices Whilst there are many cultures throughout the world, every culture is distinct and varies considerably from one another. Culture is viewed as a main pillar that clearly defines ethnic identity, autonomy, and the tribal dominance of a society (Bravo Noya, 2014). Its influence is fascinating by the way certain skills, knowledge, and practices are observed and learnt over a period of time to maintain and preserve its existence (Sherry Ornstein, 2014). Similarly, different societies have profound cultural beliefs and interpretations in relation to pregnancy and childbirth practices. Though birthing is an individual occasion, it is also an important societal experience that impacts women’s perceptions and certain beliefs between respective societies (Kaphle, Hancock, Newman, 2013). For instance, during pregnancy, women strictly observe their cultural norms and â€Å"taboos† by avoiding certain foods or diets. In general, a particular food that is abundant in protein is avoided due to their mutual belief(s) that may lead to congenital deformed babies, resembling features of food eaten, or their babies may grow big thereby complicating the second stage of labour (Kuzma, et al., 2013). Cultural influences are persuasive, and thus, prevent pregnant women to access essential maternal health care. Socio-cultural Beliefs and Access to Basic Obstetric Care (BOC) In spite of the fact that there are many different societies, they are often classified into two broad kinds of societies; patrilineal or matrilineal. Patrilineal society is more common and influential. Patrilineal societies qualify men to own the land, properties, make critical decisions, and decide on family size (Koian, 2010). Land is considered as an important asset for families in ethnic societies. This is why, in patrilineal societies, men would often want to have more male children in their family to inherit the land, and also to take full responsibility during their old age (Tao, 2014). In contrast, women’s responsibilities are often associated with domestic duties, such as cooking, gardening, childbearing and childrearing. On the other hand, basic medical ailments and maternal health services (for example, Family Planning) are viewed as insignificant to certain societies, and are perceived to only interfere with their cultural beliefs (Kaphle, Hancock, Newman, 2013). Moreover, any pregnancy or childbirth-related complications are considered abnormal, and the victim (pregnant woman) is condemned for disobedience; as a result, she is cursed by ancestral evil forces (Kuzma, et al., 2013). Such cultural beliefs often have subsequent impact on pregnant women accessing and utilising vital antenatal and obstetric care (Boerleider, Wiegers, Mannien, Francke, Deville, 2013). Traditional Birth Attendance (TBA) and their Experiences To strengthen maternal health care, emphasis is placed on pregnant women accessing health facilities for supervised care and deliveries from Skilled Birth Attendants (SBAs). These are qualified health professionals (such as; midwives, nurses and doctors) who are able to manage pregnancies and childbirths, and detect possible obstetric complications threatening to the mother and her unborn baby (Uzt, Siddiqui, Adegoke, Broeke, 2013). In many societies, Traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs) are available, usually old women who are considered skilful and knowledgeable in managing childbirths. Their competency of practice has become women’s first choice of contact when in labour. Also, their respectful approach toward mothers, irrespective of their social status, age, parity, and reasonable labour fees, have continued to influence women’s perception of positive childbirth experiences under their care (Akpabio, Edet, Etifit, Bassey, 2014). Unfortunately, TBAs still require essential evidence-based knowledge; they need adequate emergency obstetric skills and kits to manage during labour and birth emergencies. Their performing (birthing) roles were observed, and acquired only through other experienced TBAs. Yet, pregnant women still forgo formal deliveries to seek assistance from TBAs. Even some who often attend antenatal clinics still prefer TBAs during labour. Such care outside the scope of professional practice results in high rates of preventable maternal deaths (Akpabio, Edet, Etifit, Bassey, 2014). Pregnancy and childbirth experiences can be life-threatening without the presence of SBAs. Hence, it is necessary for pregnant mothers to seek formal support, and care in health care settings where health care providers, and essential life-saving equipment are available. Health Care Providers’ Attitudes and Approaches Health Care Providers have primary responsibilities in providing health care effectively to their patients (women) without favouritism, injustice, harassment, and discrimination due to their socio-cultural attributes. One of the reason that affects pregnant women in relation to seeking a health centre birth is the â€Å"maltreatment† they receive from health care providers. Such unethical treatment in general includes professional negligence, abusive language, discrimination, and interventions without granting permission (Moyer, Adongo, Aborigo, Hodgson, Engmann, 2014). They feel that the environment is not conducive for them. Thus, the fear of ill treatment from health care providers (especially, midwives and other female health workers) often discourages women from accessing health care to deliver their babies (Essendi, Mills, Fotso, 2010). The attitudes and approaches of health care providers must be facilitated in such a friendly manner so as to encourage midwife/nurse-t o-mother relationships to achieve optimal maternal outcomes. Another reason that often prevents pregnant women opting for hospital births is their fear of health workers’ keeping their placentas for disposal (without giving the placentas to them). Some women often use placentas to execute traditional ceremonials, and are concerned it will be difficult for them to take their placentas home. Such deprivation becomes a hindrance for some of them to access supervised delivery where appropriate and essential (Moyer, Adongo, Aborigo, Hodgson, Engmann, 2014). For that reason, establishing rapport and providing empathetic care and a compassionate attitude is expected. Transcultural conflicts in health are precluded when care is integrated harmoniously without cultural interference. Conclusion In conclusion, the emphasis on facilitating obstetric services for pregnant women performs an essential role in strengthening maternal and child health. Improving accessibility and reinforcement at all levels of the health care system is of paramount importance for obstetric services to function effectively. Professional conduct during the care is needed while as much as possible, accommodating socio-cultural attributes to attain best possible outcomes. Also, comprehensive community-based programs by health care providers relating to maternal health, has the potential to connect any existing socio-cultural barriers, and allow women to freely utilize obstetric care when necessary. Bibliography Akpabio, I., Edet, O., Etifit, R., Bassey, G. (2014). Womens Preference for Traditional Birth Attendants and Modern Health Care Practioners in Akpabuyo Community of Cross River State, Nigeria. Health Care for Women International, 35:1, 100-109. Boerleider, A., Wiegers, T., Mannien, J., Francke, A., Deville, W. (2013). Factors affecting the Use of Prenatal Care by Non-western Women in Industrialized Western Countries: A Systemic Review. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 13:81, 1471-2393. Bravo, I., Noya, M. (2014). Culture in Prenatal Development: Parental Attitudes, Availability of Care, Expectations, Values and Nutrition. Child Youth Care Forum. 43, 521-538. Essendi, H., Mills, S., Fotso, C. (2010). Barriers to Formal Emergency Obstetric Care Services Utilization. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, Vol.88, Suppl.2, S356-S369. Faisal, A., Tofayel, A. (2014). Influence of the Socio-cultural Factors in Health-seeking Behaviour of Women during Pregnancy in Rural Bangladesh . Journal of Exclusion Studies, Vol.4, Issue:1, 1-11. Kaphle, S., Hancock, H., Newman, L. (2013). Childbirth Traditions and Cultural Perceptions of Safety in Nepal: Critical Spaces to ensure the Survival of Mothers and Newborns in Remote Mountain Villages. Midwifery 29, 1173-1181. Koian, R. (2010). Women in Patrilineal and Matrilineal Societies in Melanesia. Madang, PNG: Bismark Ramu Group. Kosum, Z., Yurdakul, M. (2012). Factors Affecting the Use of Emergency Obstetric Care among Pregnant Women with Antenatal Bleeding. Midwifery 29, 440-446. Kuzma, J., Paofa, D., Kaugle, N., Catherina, T., Samiak, S., Kumei, E. (2013). Food Taboos and Traditional Customs Among Pregnant Women in Papua New Guinea: Missed Opportunity for Education in Antenatal Clinics. Contemporary PNG Studies: DWU Research Journal, Vol.19, 1-11. Moyer, C., Adongo, P., Aborigo, R., Hodgson, A., Engmann, C. (2014). They treat you like you are not a human being: Maltreatment during Labour and Delivery in Rural Northern Ghana. Midwifery 30, 262-268. Sherry, S., Ornstein, A. (2014). The Preservation and Transmission of Cultural Values and Ideals: Challenges Facing Immigrant Families. Psychoanalytic Inquiry: A Topical Journal for Mental Health Professionals, 34:5, 452-462. Tao, L. (2014). Why do women interact with their parents more often then men? The demonstration effect vs. biological effect. The Social Science Journal, 1-11. Uzt, B., Siddiqui, G., Adegoke, A., Broeke, N. (2013). Definitions and Roles of a Skilled Birth Attendant: A Mapping Exercise from South-Asian Countries. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica (AOGS), 1-7. Yankuzo, K. (2014). Impact of Globalization on the Traditional African Cultures. International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences 4, 1-8. McKenzie Maviso1

Auschwitz: Overview of the Concentration Camp Essay -- Germany Hitler

Auschwitz: Overview of the Concentration Camp The Holocaust was one of the most horrifying crimes against humanity. "Hitler, in an attempt to establish the pure Aryan race, decided that Jews, Poles, Soviet prisoners of war, Roma (Gypsies), and homosexuals amongst others were to be eliminated from the German population. One of his main methods of exterminating these â€Å"undesirables† was through the use of concentration and death camps. In January of 1941, Adolf Hitler and his top officials decided to make their â€Å"final solution† a reality. Their goal was to eliminate the Jews and the â€Å"impure† from the entire German population. Auschwitz was not only the largest concentration camp that carried out Hitler's â€Å"final solution,† but it was also the most extensive. It was comprised of three separate camps that encompassed approximately 25 square miles. Although millions of people came to Auschwitz, it is doubted that more than 120,000-150,000 ever lived there at any one time. (Encyclopedia of the Holocaust) On April 27, 1940, the head of the SS and German police, Heinrich Himmler, ordered that a new concentration camp be established near the town of Oswiecim. A short while later the building of the camp in Zasole, the suburb of Oswiecim, was started. The camp was to be called Auschwitz. The first laborers forced to work on the construction of the camp were three hundred Jews from Oswiecim and its vicinity. (Encyclopedia of the Holocaust) After the completion it covered two square kilometers and took approximately one and a half hours to walk around its perimeter. (Feig, 340) On the gate of Auschwitz was a sign in German that read, â€Å"Arbeit macht frei,† which translates into English as â€Å"work makes one free.† (Feig, 334) This was one of the many lies which the Nazis told their prisoners. The first Jews in Auschwitz believed that they were just being taken there to work for the Nazis. As more and more people died word leaked to the outside world about what was really happening at Auschwitz. The Jews and other undesirables were forced by S.S. soldiers to leave their homes and nearly all of their possessions behind to board crowded trains to Auschwitz. Ironically most of the time they had to pay for the train rides that eventually led to their death. The train rides to Auschwitz were an introduction to the treatment that the deportees were to receive at the ca... ...ewly constructed factories such as the German Armaments Works and the German Earth and Stone Works. (Encyclopedia of the Holocaust) Auschwitz was the largest graveyard in human history. The number of Jews murdered in the gas chambers of Birkenau is estimated at up to one and a half million people: men, women, and children. Almost one-quarter of the Jews killed during World War II were murdered in Auschwitz. Of the 405,000 registered prisoners who received Auschwitz numbers, only a part survived; and of the 16,000 Soviet prisoners of war who were brought there, only 96 survived. Works Cited Bauer, Yehuda. A History of the Holocaust. New York: Franklin Watts, 1982. Feig, Konnilyn G. Hitler's Death Camps. New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1979. Guttman, Isreal, Ed. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust. New York: Macmallin, 1990. Hellman, Petrt. The Auschwitz Album. New York: Random House, 1981. Lynott, Douglas Josef Mengele: The Angel of Death Mà ¼ller, Filip. Auschwitz: Three Years in the Gas Chambers. New York: Stein and Day,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1979. Nyiszli, Dr. Miklos Auschwitz: An Eyewitness Account of Mengle's Infamous Death   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Camp. New York: Seaver Books, 1960.

Beyond the Disability Essay -- Interview Essay

Born in Northern Ireland, Eamonn McGirr began his career not as the lively, captivating performer he is now known as, but as a mathematics professor. I had the opportunity to meet and interview Mr. McGirr while working for the school newspaper. After interviewing Mr. McGirr it is easy to envision him amongst a classroom of young students. Not only is he articulate and engaging, but even more striking is the overwhelming sincerity and compassion he radiated throughout our conversation. Â   Mr. McGirr has been an active member of the disabled community for some time now. His main motivation to become an active participant has been his daughter Mareena. Mareena has cerebral palsy and Mr. McGirr has worked tirelessly to raise support for individuals living with C.P., as well as other disabilities. It comes with unfortunate irony that he, a bastion of strength for the disabled community, has recently suffered his own physical trauma. It was just over a year ago that Mr. McGirr suffered a spinal injury that has left him in a wheelchair, as well as severely limiting the movement in his hands. Â   During his six months in the hospital Mr. McGirr felt periods of great discouragement. He feared that his entire life would need reconstruction. There were even moments when the doctors had indicated that there was no hope that he would ever perform again. However, with the support of Mareena and his wife Mary, Mr. McGirr found hope when things seemed hopeless. After receiving a deluge of inspirational letters ranging from Governor Pataki to other individuals suffering their own personal disabilities, Mr. McGirr decided it was time to return home and begin his life again. Â   His stories were not sugar-coated... ...e sums of money, every little bit helps. In spreading the word, we can get many small donations that together can make a real difference in the life of one individual. Â   Prior to our interview, I had only known Eamonn McGirr as the performer who sang tirelessly for 11 days and 20 minutes, breaking his fifth Guinness World Record - all in the name of the Center for the Disabled. However, after our interview, I had respect and admiration for a man who not only devoted himself to a cause, but has done so with a passion and fervor scarcely found. Eamonn McGirr has given himself fully to the disability movement and now, himself living with a disability, continues to work at full throttle. Mr. McGirr stands out as a pivotal and significant figure in the disability movement, and I believe he has set a precedent that will inspire and motivate generations to come.

Was Shakespeare Really in Love? Essay -- William Shakespeare Playwrigh

Was Shakespeare Really in Love? William Shakespeare is arguably one of the best playwrights of all time, and he is certainly one of the most well-known writers in the history of literature. Shakespeare is a classic example of how art and literature can touch so many people’s lives and hearts. His work has been enjoyed by millions of people for four hundred years, and today, his plays are still being performed daily all over the world. He wrote a total of thirty-seven plays and 154 sonnets in his lifetime. Plays like Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, and Macbeth are recognized by most people, and they, coupled with his beautiful sonnets, are clear evidence that Shakespeare was a romantic man. Over four hundred years ago, Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, about 100 miles northwest of London, in April of 1564. Shakespeare was the first son and the third child born to his parents, John and Mary Shakespeare. His father was a â€Å"glover,† a maker, worker and seller of leather goods, such as gloves, purses, and belts. Most scholars agree that Shakespeare attended the Stratford grammar school, where he learned the English alphabet, as well as reading and writing in Latin. In grammar school, Shakespeare would have been exposed to Latin authors such as Cicero, Virgil, Seneca, and Ovid. It was in grammar school that Shakespeare fell in love with literature, yet when Shakespeare was around thirteen years old, his father was forced to take him out of grammar school to help him with the business at home. Most scholars believe Shakespeare continued enjoying Latin and English literature throughout his entire lifetime. Clearly, he was familiar with such literature, and a life-long student, because many of his plays are modeled after pr... ...Shakespeare. New York: Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2002. Mabillard, Amanda. â€Å"Shakespeare of Stratford.†Shakespeare Online. 2000. http://www.shakespeare-online.com/biography/default.asp. (11/20/2002). Kinney, Sarah. â€Å"Shakespeare’s Marriage – Is it Reflected in His Plays?† http://www.calvin.edu/academic/engl/346/proj/skinney.htm. (11/27/2002). Almasy, Rudolph. Daniel, Rebecca. Gerlach, Jeanne. â€Å"Revisiting Shakespeare and Gender.†Digital Library & Archives. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/WILLA/fall96/gerlach.html Gray, Terry. â€Å"1564 Birth & Early Years.†Ã¢â‚¬Å"1582 Marriage.†Ã¢â‚¬Å"1608 Romance & Reconciliation.†A Shakespeare Timeline. 1998. http://shakespeare.palomar.edu/timeline/timeline.htm Ward, Ian. â€Å"Shakespeare and the Politics of Community.† Early Modern Literary Studies. 1999. http://www.shu.ac.uk/emls/04-3/wardshak.html

Politeness and Pragmatics in the Context of Cross-Cultural Communication

Throughout almost all societies, politeness plays an integral role in the effectiveness of social life and interaction within the context of both inter-cultural and cross-cultural communication. Within different cultures the definition of politeness may vary substantially and as a result may be appropriated in ways that are largely misunderstood within the context of other cultures.It is for this reason that scholars such as Brown and Levinson have derived theories on politeness and its use within global society, however the seemingly non-existent universal definition of politeness can also be responsible for the criticisms that these theories receive. When discussing the notion of politeness, the study of cross-cultural pragmatics as represented by Thomas, Tannen and Wierzbicka provide a deeper understanding of the appropriation of politeness and the difficulties that emerge as a result of cross-cultural misunderstanding.One of the major theories surrounding politeness is that of Br own and Levinson (1978, later revised in 1987). Brown and Levinson’s theory argues that politeness consists of three basic elements of human interaction: the maintenance of personal face, the acts which may threaten the face of either a speaker or hearer and the politeness strategies used within the context of conversation to maintain face. The concept of ‘face’, according to Brown and Levinson, outlines the human desire of avoiding embarrassment or humiliation whilst maintaining a positive representation of themselves.In accordance with the politeness phenomena theory, face exists in both a positive sense and a negative sense. Positive face is defined simply as ‘self-image’ while negative face refers to the freedom from imposition. The face-threatening act, according to Brown and Levinson, exists in four main categories. Firstly, the act which threatens the hearer’s negative face can include orders, advice, etc. and can ultimately undermine t he hearer’s freedom of action whilst criticism and disagreement can lead to a threat on the hearer’s self-image.Alternatively, acceptance of either apologies or thanks can impact on the speaker’s negative face although issuing an apology or offering a confession can upset the self-image of the speaker. Brown and Levinson theorise that â€Å"the assessment of the seriousness of a face-threatening act involves the following factors in many and perhaps all cultures† (1987, 74). These factors include Social Distance i. e. he acquaintanceship between speaker and hearer, the Relative Power of the speaker in relation to the hearer such as the degree of imposition the speaker holds over the hearer and the Absolute Ranking of the imposition within the context of the culture in which the imposition occurs. The third basic notion of Brown and Levinson’s politeness phenomena theory is that of Politeness Strategies, or simply the formulation of messages in orde r to save the face of the hearer in the wake of an impending face-threatening act.Brown and Levinson outline politeness strategies as being either ‘On-Record’ or ‘Off- Record’. Off-Record strategies avoid the use of direct impositions to maintain a hearer’s face whereas On-Record strategies can be further separated into four categories. Carrying out an act ‘Baldly, without redress’, refers to the act between a speaker and hearer who share a great deal of familiarity and thus make no attempt to avoid the most direct form of imposition. Redressive action’ is the act of the speaker imposing on the hearer while trying to adjust their behaviour to maintain either the positive face or negative face of the hearer. Redressive actions aimed at preserving the positive face of the hearer are known as ‘Positive politeness’ and are employed to enhance the hearer’s self-image.These include the exaggeration of interest in the hearer and his or her interests, sympathising with the hearer and the avoidance of disagreements. Negative politeness’ is a Redressive action aimed at the preservation of the Hearer’s negative face. Negative politeness is achieved through indirectness, deference and apologising for imposition. The politeness theory phenomena has drawn much criticism in subsequent years due to its universality. For example, Goffman advocates that â€Å"each person, subculture and society seems to have its own characteristic repertoire of face-saving practices, yet these are all drawn from a single logically coherent framework of possible practices† (1967, p. 13).Put succinctly, this argument suggests that face does not necessarily belong just to the individual, but rather to sub-culture and society as well, and as a result one concise theory, no matter how logical, cannot possibly serve to represent all cultures in global existence. Tannen, in her discussion of The Pragmatics of Cross-Cultural Communication, outlines several instances in which politeness may become lost in instances of cross-cultural interaction. She outlines eight levels of conversation: when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation, formulaicity, indirectness and cohesion and coherence.In each of these instances misunderstandings may occur and as a result the concept of politeness may be lost. One example provided outlines the difference between American and Japanese businessmen: â€Å"Americans as a group tend to ignore or even rail against indirectness [†¦] but it gets American businessmen in trouble when they try to skip the small talk and get right down to business with Japanese [†¦] counterparts, for whom elaborate ‘small talk’ is big and essential, furnishing the foundation for any business dealings. (1984, p. 193). Thomas simply defines cross-cultural pragmatic failure as the hearer’s inability to ascertain meaning from the speaker. She outlines two distinct types of pragmatic failure: pragmalinguistic failure and sociopragmatic failure. Pragmalinguistic failure occurs when an utterance from a speaker is misused and thus misinterpreted by a native speaker. Sociopragmatic failure is used to â€Å"refer to the social conditions placed on language in use† (Thomas, 1983).These factors are large contributors to the notion of politeness being lost in the context of cross-cultural communication i. e. the dismissal of a compliment by a hearer of non-Western origin (a norm in many non-Western cultures) may be viewed as rude by the issuer of a compliment of Western origin. While Brown and Levinson’s study on the politeness phenomena allows us a greater insight into the workings of politeness in social context, it is fairly evident that its universality is not entirely representative of the practices of all cultural groups.While it can be said that face and face-threatening acts and the resulting po liteness strategies are the basis for much of the appropriation of politeness in human interaction, we must look deeper when discussing politeness on a cross-cultural level. This is evident through a deeper study of the use of politeness in a cross-cultural context and the failures that result in cross-cultural pragmatism.

Hedging Currency Risks at AIFS Essay

1. The final sales volume and the final dollar exchange rate gives rise to the currency exposure risk. Prices are set 1 year ahead of time so any fluctuation in the exchange rate will potentially cause a loss or savings to AIFS when the currency is exchanged. 2. If the exchange rate remains constant at $1.22/euros then AIFS will not incur a loss or a gain. It would cost $1220 per participant at this exchange rate. If actual dollar costs were above this level, then there would be a negative impact. If actual dollar costs were lower than expected, the impact would be positive. Thus, with a sales volume of 25,000 participants and the exchange rate rises to $1.48/euros then AIFS will be subject to a loss of $4,391,892. If the exchange rate drops to $1.01/euros then AIFS will save $5,198,020. 3. With a 100% forward hedge under a final sales volume of 25,000 participants, AIFS is facing a dollar inflow of $25,000,000. Under this assumption, the optimal amount of expenses would be 1000 Euros per student. Risk arises when currency rates between the Euro and the dollar fluctuate. From the European perspective, there is 25 million Euros in underlying exposure. If 25 million Euros were bought forward at the 1.22 $/euro rate, then 30.5 million dollars will be sold. If the contract was signed in June 2004, then 1 year 30.5 million dollars can be spent for 25 million Euros, leaving a net position of 0 Euros and 30.5 million dollars (100% forward hedge). With this forward hedge, AIFS is completely mitigating the exchange rate risk between the dollar and the Euro, and are thus protected from losing money if the exchange rate approaches 1.48$/Euro. With a 100% option hedge, 4. The higher or lower sales volume would exaggerate whatever gains or losses AIFS will realize. We are able to utilize the AIFS shifting box to determine what the reactions to differing sales volume versus the exchange rate. If the volume is low and the exchange rate is out of the money, the loss will be lower than if the volume was the same as projected. With a  lower sales volume but in the money interest rate the gain would be realized, however again it would be smaller than the gain with the expected 25,000 participant value. For a higher sales volume and out of the money exchange rate the loss would be the highest possible, which can be hedged by using an option. If the sales volume is high and the rate is in the money, this would be the highest possible gain, however it would also require AIFS to buy more currency. This is both good and bad news, because the exchange rate could be out of the money by the time AIFS is able to buy more currency. However if the exchange rate was in the money this option would be the best possible situation, creating the highest revenues of all possibilities. 5. The option hedge strategy would be the policy we would advocate because AIFS purchases foreign currency based on the projected sales volumes. The option strategy provides the best protection from the fluctuation in both exchange rates and sales volumes. We believe that due to the industry in which AIFS operates, the company is more likely to experience higher fluctuations in sales volumes than in the exchange rates. The option strategy provides a more versatile option to hedge against this potential risk because AIFS will not be locked into a specific rate, as is the case with forward hedges.